Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system industry in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s primary productive force.

The initial phases of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced substantial challenges due to lack of resources and talent. At the starting China lagged most Western countries in regards to AI development. A bulk of the research was led by researchers who had actually received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has gradually established a nationwide agenda for artificial intelligence development and emerged as among the leading countries in expert system research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it intended to become an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based companies, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business must lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s rapid AI advancement has actually substantially impacted Chinese society in numerous locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most affected by more AI deployment.

The economic sector, university labs, and the military are working collaboratively in lots of aspects as there are couple of present existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to limit China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and development did not begin up until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists introduced AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had an usually conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these difficulties by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further supplying government funds for research study jobs. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in viewpoint from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s very first research publication on expert system was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have been part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has actually even more expanded its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research study projects has dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China announced a policy concern for the advancement of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the same year, synthetic intelligence was also discussed in the eleventh five-year plan. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial turning point in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of artificial intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a tactical innovation that has become a “focus of global competitors”. [14]:2 The file urged significant investment in a variety of strategic areas related to AI and required close cooperation between the state and private sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is an important part to being a terrific power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level usages in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI expertise chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council stated the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, as well as public and personal investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI strategy include the capacity of artificial intelligence for commercial transformation, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of artificial intelligence broadened to various fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the emergence of big language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese researchers started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system released China’s first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the guidelines concerning deepfakes, which became efficient in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on basic generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specifications for data collection and design training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese government launched its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to build AI policy discussion with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually revealed concern over AI security dangers, including abuse of information or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors developed with generative artificial intelligence to deliver phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the 3rd biggest. The fourth and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be important to the future of worldwide military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its location as an international leader in AI research. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the advancement of artificial intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “seeks to blend state preparation and control while some operational flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid gamers. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market securities, developing asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan reaffirmed AI as a top research priority and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector often supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The federal government financing also supported numerous AI R&D in the personal sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously buying all elements of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s modern industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and regional commercial development and community. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play an important function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private cooperations, and worldwide cooperations and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China exceeded the U.S. in 2020 in the overall number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing obligations on AI companies, the general method to its guideline is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population creates a massive quantity of available information for companies and scientists, which uses a vital advantage in the race of big data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest number of web users, generating substantial quantities of information for device knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is among the most widely utilized AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its locals assists more train and expand AI abilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however also offers incredible economic possible bring in both global and domestic companies to join the AI market. The drastic development of the info and communication innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets recently are two examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures stating that tech companies will be obligated to ensure AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual residential or commercial property rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal obligation for training data and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced content might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before launching a large language model to the public, companies need to seek approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to answer certain concerns connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically delicate topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training information sets frequently utilized for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers regional companies with training data that CCP leaders think about permissible. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to answer concerns connecting to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold positive views about AI’s economic effect on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually battled with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are anticipated to reduce while an increase in efficiency produces profits growth. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to conquer adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of appropriately trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening income inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of increasing needs for laborers with advanced abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is focused in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright protection. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to develop a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on using unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is looking into different types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer simulation of a similar swarm development finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications showed that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. plans for defense innovation and worries of a widening “generational gap” in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for exploiting large chests of intelligence, creating a common operating image, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice support, software application, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist between Chinese commercial business, university lab, the military, and the main government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct means of assisting AI development priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To even more strengthen these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI technology from commercial business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of information labeling to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly approving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese venture capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to avoid foreign investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial nations,” from investing in U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese federal government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool utilizing Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unauthorized due to its design use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, particularly given that China faces challenges in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the exact same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research products. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the number of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released papers, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China especially desire to deal with military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently established the first children’s instructional program in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical concerns in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with particular emphasis on user security, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adjustment by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people will remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI concepts calling for necessary needs in long-term research and planning of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have actually developed legislation dealing with information privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure categorizing all kinds of data collection and storage in China. [81] This suggests all tech companies in China are needed to classify their information into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and manage data transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate conflicts related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI assesses the evidence presented and applies pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology companies may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing celebration management, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary space of judges are intentional goals of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI business iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage personal tech business in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s commitment to global AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically ingrained causes of China’s anxiety towards protecting a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to take advantage of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation including AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government officials demonstrated remarkably keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China” and “financing, focus, and a desire amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale needed change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: “China may have unrivaled resources and huge untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Rather than stress over China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing heavily in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the advancement of AI for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the threats that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing effects on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher injustice of workers and more serious social issues. [28]:90 Gao cites how the development of AI has increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to higher capital accumulation and political power in fewer economic actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the main accountable star in the area of generative AI (creating new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military use of AI dangers intensifying military competition between countries which the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover impacts. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential threat from expert system have actually taken location. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is generally optimistic regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study performed throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI surpass the dangers, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees discovered that 80% concurred or strongly agreed that AI will do more good than damage for society, and 31% believed it ought to be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial recognition innovation in the Xinjiang area to detect Uyghurs is “the very first known example of a government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, locations experiencing higher rates of unrest are associated with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by local municipal police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of artificial intelligence

References

^ a b Chang, Huey-Meei; Hannas, William C. (2022-06-22), “Foreign support, alliances, and technology transfer”, Chinese Power and Expert System (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 36-54, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-4, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ a b c He, Yujia (2017 ). How China is getting ready for an AI-powered Future (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Archived (PDF) from the initial on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b c d e Luong, Ngor; Fedasiuk, Ryan (2022-06-22), “State strategies, research study, and funding”, Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 3-18, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-2, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ a b c d e f g Kania, Elsa B. (November 28, 2017). Battlefield Singularity: Expert System, Military Revolution, and China’s Future Military Power. Washington D.C: Center for a New American Security. OCLC 1029611044. Archived from the initial on January 14, 2024. Retrieved February 16, 2024.
^ Allen, Gregory (11 October 2022). “Choking off China’s Access to the Future of AI”. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from the initial on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
^ Allen, Gregory C.; Benson, Emily (2023-03-01). “Clues to the U.S.-Dutch-Japanese Semiconductor Export Controls Deal Are Hiding in Plain Sight”. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived from the original on 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
^ a b Zhang, Daqiu; Lin, Yujie (2024-07-02). “生成中国式AI ： 审查之外 ， 科技公司的烦恼清单” [Building a Chinese AI: Beyond censorship, tech business’ list of worries] Initium Media (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 2024-07-11. Retrieved 2024-07-11.
^ a b c d e Lin, Liza (July 15, 2024). “China Puts Power of State Behind AI-and Risks Strangling It”. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
^ a b c d 蔡自兴 (13 August 2016). “中国人工智能40 年”. 科技导报 (in Chinese). 34 (15 ): 12-32. doi:10.3981/ j.issn.1000-7857.2016.15.001 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 1000-7857. Archived from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2022-02-07. cite journal: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link).
^ “Introduction to the Chinese Association of Artificial Intelligence”. 中国人工智能学会.
^ Liu, Wei (2023 ), Liu, Wei (ed.), “From Adjustment to Innovation: How China’s Economic Structure Has Been Upgraded”, China’s 40 Years of Reform, Understanding China, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 11-33, doi:10.1007/ 978-981-19-8505-8_2, ISBN 978-981-19-8504-1.
^ a b “人民网 世界人工智能国际联合大会今秋将首次在中国举行– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “科学网-首届吴文俊人工智能科学技术奖颁奖”. news.sciencenet.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ a b c d e “State Council Notice on the Issuance of the Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (PDF). New America. Archived (PDF) from the initial on April 13, 2018. Retrieved April 2, 2018.
^ Laskai, Lorand (29 January 2018). “Civil-Military Fusion: The Missing Link Between China’s Technological and Military Rise”. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
^ “中国科学报” 人工智能+” 应上升为国家战略– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “人民网 强强联合建医疗” 阿尔法狗” 人工智能将问诊肿瘤– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ a b Milmo, Dan; Hawkins, Amy (2024-05-18). “How China is utilizing AI news anchors to deliver its propaganda”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ Kuo, Lily (2018-11-09). “World’s very first AI news anchor unveiled in China”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ Steger, Isabella (2019-02-20). “Chinese state media’s newest development is an AI female news anchor”. Quartz. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-19. Retrieved 2024-05-19.
^ a b Cyranoski, David (January 17, 2018). “China gets in the battle for AI skill”. Nature. 553 (7688 ): 260-261. Bibcode:2018 Natur.553..260 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-00604-6. PMID 29345655.
^ Liu, Zhiyi; Zheng, Yejie (2022-04-03). “Development paradigm of expert system in China from the perspective of digital economics”. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies. 20 (2 ): 207-217. doi:10.1080/ 14765284.2022.2081485. ISSN 1476-5284. S2CID 249301337.
^ “自动化所研发出跨模态通用人工智能平台” 紫东太初”– 中国科学院”. www.cas.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
^ “Beijing-funded AI language model tops Google and OpenAI in raw numbers”. South China Morning Post. 2021-06-02. Archived from the initial on 2023-11-19. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ a b c d e f g h Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024 ). High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ oso/9780197682258.001.0001. ISBN 9780197682258.
^ Zhang, Laney (April 26, 2023). “China: Provisions on Deep Synthesis Technology Participate In Effect”. Law Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2024-08-16. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
^ “Huawei unveils Arabic LLM, brand-new information centre in Egypt as part of generative AI push”. South China Morning Post. 2024-05-21. Archived from the original on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bachulska, Alicja; Leonard, Mark; Oertel, Janka (2 July 2024). The Idea of China: Chinese Thinkers on Power, Progress, and People (EPUB). Berlin, Germany: European Council on Foreign Relations. ISBN 978-1-916682-42-9. Archived from the original on 17 July 2024. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
^ Bandurski, David (2024-12-20). “AI for All”. China Media Project. Archived from the original on 2024-12-20. Retrieved 2024-12-22.
^ Zhuang, Sylvie (21 May 2024). “China rolls out big language design AI based upon Xi Jinping Thought”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 21 May 2024. Retrieved 21 May 2024.
^ “Baidu, SenseTime lead China’s market for business-focused LLMs, says IDC”. South China Morning Post. 2024-08-22. Archived from the original on 2024-08-27. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ a b “China’s 4 new ‘AI tigers’ emerge as investor favourites”. South China Morning Post. 2024-04-19. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ “China’s AI startups race for clients as titans like Alibaba cut rates”. Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ “Chinese AI companies combat to stick out from rivals in text-to-video market”. South China Morning Post. 2024-08-08. Retrieved 2024-08-24.
^ a b Allen, Gregory C. (2019 ). Understanding China’s AI Strategy: Clues to Chinese Strategic Thinking on Artificial Intelligence and National Security (Report). Center for a Brand-new American Security. JSTOR resrep20446. Archived from the original on 2019-02-07. Retrieved 2019-03-11.
^ Sutter, Karen M. ; Arnold, Zachary (2022-06-22), “China’s AI business: Hybrid gamers”, Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 19-35, doi:10.4324/ 9781003212980-3, ISBN 978-1-003-21298-0
^ Lan, Xiaohuan (2024 ). How China Works: An Introduction to China’s State-led Economic Development. Translated by Topp, Gary. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/ 978-981-97-0080-6. ISBN 978-981-97-0079-0.
^ a b Ashwin Acharya; Zachary Arnold (December 2019). “Chinese Public AI R&D Spending: Provisional Findings”. Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20190031. S2CID 242961679. Archived from the original on 2024-04-10. Retrieved 2024-04-10.
^ Larson, Christina (8 February 2018). China’s enormous investment in expert system has a perilous downside (Report). Science. doi:10.1126/ science.aat2458.
^ a b 21世纪经济报道 (2021-07-10). “解码人工智能” 国家队””. finance.sina.com.cn. Archived from the initial on 2023-04-09. Retrieved 2024-02-16. point out web: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link).
^ Tilley, Aaron. “China’s Rise In The Global AI Race Emerges As It Takes Control Of The Final ImageNet Competition”. Forbes. Archived from the original on 2019-05-28. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ “Beijing to Judge Every Resident Based on Behavior by End of 2020”. Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2020-05-16.
^ a b Zhang, Daniel; Mishra, Saurabh; Brynjolfsson, Erik; Etchemendy, John; Ganguli, Deep; Grosz, Barbara; Lyons, Terah; Manyika, James; Niebles, Juan Carlos (2021-03-08), The AI Index 2021 Annual Report, arXiv:2103.06312.
^ Heikkilä, Melissa (June 9, 2021). “Meet Wu Dao 2.0, the Chinese AI model making the West sweat”. Politico. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
^ Ho, C. (October 15, 2024). “PRC Launches First Algorithm Registration Center, Strengthening AI and Data Regulation”. Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 2024-10-18.
^ Li, David Daokui (2024 ). China’s World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict. New York City, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393292398.
^ Li, Daitian; Tong, Tony W.; Xiao, Yangao (2021-02-18). “Is China Emerging as the Global Leader in AI?”. Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Archived from the initial on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2024-02-16.
^ Knight, Will (January 24, 2023). “China Is the World’s Biggest Face Recognition Dealer”. Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
^ Bandurski, David (April 14, 2023). “Bringing AI to the Party”. China Media Project. Archived from the original on April 15, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2023.
^ Liu, Qianer (2023-07-11). “China to put down AI guidelines with emphasis on material control”. Financial Times. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
^ “China is shoring up the great firewall for the AI age”. The Economist. December 26, 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the initial on 2023-12-26. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
^ a b McMorrow, Ryan; Hu, Tina (July 17, 2024). “China deploys censors to produce socialist AI”. Financial Times. Archived from the initial on July 17, 2024. Retrieved July 17, 2024.
^ Colville, Alex (2024-11-27). “The Party in the Machine”. China Media Project. Archived from the original on 2024-12-02. Retrieved 2024-11-30.
^ Lyngaas, Sean (2023-09-07). “Suspected Chinese operatives utilizing AI produced images to spread out disinformation among US citizens, Microsoft states”. CNN. Archived from the original on 2024-04-02. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
^ Milmo, Dan (2024-04-05). “China will use AI to interfere with elections in the US, South Korea and India, Microsoft alerts”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-25. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
^ Farrell, James (April 5, 2024). “China Eying Election Disruption Campaigns-Including With AI, Microsoft Says”. Forbes. Archived from the original on April 8, 2024. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
^ Field, Matthew; Titcomb, James (27 January 2025). “Chinese AI has sparked a $1 trillion panic – and it doesn’t appreciate complimentary speech”. The Daily Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
^ Steinschaden, Jakob (27 January 2025). “DeepSeek: This is what live censorship looks like in the Chinese AI chatbot”. Trending Topics. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
^ Lu, Donna (28 January 2025). “We experimented with DeepSeek. It worked well, till we asked it about Tiananmen Square and Taiwan”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2025.
^ “How China Is Using AI to Fuel the Next Industrial Revolution”. Time. Archived from the initial on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b c d “Artificial intelligence: Implications for China”. McKinsey & Company. Archived from the original on 2024-02-04. Retrieved 2024-02-16.
^ Bresnick, Sam (June 2024). “China’s Military AI Roadblocks”. Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20230042 (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from the initial on 2024-06-18. Retrieved 2024-06-18. mention web: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link).
^ Takagi, Koichiro (November 16, 2022). “Xi Jinping’s Vision for Artificial Intelligence in the PLA”. The Diplomat. Archived from the original on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ a b c d Expert system and National Security (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-08. Retrieved 2020-04-30. This short article includes text from this source, which remains in the general public domain.
^ Magnuson, Stew (July 13, 2023). “China Pursues Its Own Version of JADC2”. National Defense. Archived from the original on February 18, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ “China Military Power Report Examines Changes in Beijing’s Strategy”. U.S. Department of Defense. November 29, 2022. Archived from the original on May 25, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
^ Fedasiuk, Ryan (August 2020). Chinese Perspectives on AI and Future Military Capabilities (Report). Center for Security and Emerging Technology. doi:10.51593/ 20200022.
^ Knight, Will (October 10, 2017). “China’s AI Awakening中国 人工智能 的崛起”. MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2020-05-13. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ Mozur, Paul; Markoff, John (2017-05-27). “Is China Outsmarting America in A.I.?”. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-04-07. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ Brown, Michael; Singh, Pavneet (2018 ). China’s Technology Transfer Strategy: How Chinese Investments in Emerging Technology Enable A Strategic Competitor to Access the Crown Jewels of U.S. Innovation (PDF). Defense Innovation Unit Experimental. p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-12. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b Kan, Michael (September 15, 2022). “Biden Curbs China’s Investment in US Tech Firms With New Executive Order”. PC Magazine. Archived from the initial on February 20, 2024. Retrieved February 19, 2024.
^ a b Sanger, David E. (2022-09-15). “Biden Issues New Order to Block Chinese Investment in Technology in the U.S.” The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2024-02-20. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
^ Cheung, Sunny (October 31, 2024). “PRC Adapts Meta’s Llama for Military and Security AI Applications”. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 2024-11-02. Retrieved 2024-11-03.
^ Pomfret, James; Pang, Jessie (November 1, 2024). “Chinese researchers develop AI design for military usage on back of Meta’s Llama”. Reuters. Retrieved November 1, 2024.
^ “Which countries and universities are leading on AI research?”. Times Higher Education. 2017-05-22. Archived from the initial on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ “China’s brightest children recruited to develop AI ‘killer bots'”. South China Morning Post. 2018-11-08. Archived from the original on 2020-01-09. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
^ a b “China has become a clinical superpower”. The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the initial on 2024-09-26. Retrieved 2024-09-27.
^ a b “Chinese AI has new ethical standards that curb Big Tech’s algorithms”. South China Morning Post. 2021-10-03. Archived from the initial on 2022-02-03. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ Wu, Wenjun; Huang, Tiejun; Gong, Ke (March 2020). “Ethical Principles and Governance Technology Development of AI in China”. Engineering. 6 (3 ): 302-309. Bibcode:2020 Engin … 6..302 W. doi:10.1016/ j.eng.2019.12.015.
^ “Translation: Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China (Effective June 1, 2017)”. DigiChina. Archived from the initial on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b Horwitz, Josh (2021-08-27). “China’s coming information laws leave firms with more questions than responses”. Reuters. Archived from the initial on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.
^ a b Šimalčík, Matej (2023 ). “Rule by Law”. In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. pp. 114-127. doi:10.4324/ 9781003350064-12. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
^ Zhabina, Alena (January 20, 2023). “How China’s AI is automating the legal system”. Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024. Retrieved May 25, 2024.
^ Chen, Stephen (2022-07-13). “China’s court AI reaches into every corner of justice system: report”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2024-03-31. Retrieved 2024-05-25. [H] umans will slowly lose free choice with an increasing reliance on technology”, she said in a paper released in the domestic peer-reviewed journal Law and Social Development on Sunday. The clever court system, built with the deep participation of China’s tech giants, would also pass excessive power into the hands of a couple of technical experts who wrote the code, established algorithms or monitored the database. “We need to be alert to the erosion of judicial power by innovation business and capital,” she included.
^ Papagianneas, Straton; Junius, Nino (November 2023). “Fairness and justice through automation in China’s wise courts”. Computer Law & Security Review. 51: 100-101. doi:10.1016/ j.clsr.2023.105897. hdl:10067/ 2001290151162165141. Archived from the initial on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2024-05-26 – through Elsevier Science Direct.
^ Pham, Sherisse (2018 ). “Chinese AI start-up dwarfs global competitors with $4.5 billion appraisal”. CNN. Archived from the original on 9 April 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
^ “China increases tech education to become expert system leader”. NBC News. 4 January 2020. Archived from the initial on 2020-01-10. Retrieved 2020-01-10.
^ Cao, Ann (2023-09-07). “Tencent releases Hunyuan structure AI design for business”. South China Morning Post. Archived from the initial on 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-03.
^ Olcott, Eleanor (3 May 2024). “4 start-ups lead China’s race to match OpenAI’s ChatGPT”. Financial Times. Archived from the original on 8 September 2024. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
^ a b c Zeng, Jinghan (2021-09-16). “Securitization of Expert System in China”. The Chinese Journal of International Politics. 14 (3 ): 417-445. doi:10.1093/ cjip/poab005. ISSN 1750-8916.
^ Knight, Will (October 10, 2017). “China’s AI Awakening”. MIT Technology Review. Archived from the initial on March 24, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
^ Guest, Peter (November 29, 2024). “Inside the AI back-channel in between China and the West”. The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-12-08.
^ Corvino, Nick; Li, Boshen (August 23, 2024). “Survey: How Do Elite Chinese Students Feel About the Risks of AI?”. Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the initial on 2024-08-24. Retrieved 2024-08-23.
^ Beraja, Martin; Kao, Andrew; Yang, David Y; Yuchtman, Noam (2023-06-23). “AI-tocracy”. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 138 (3 ): 1349-1402. doi:10.1093/ qje/qjad012. ISSN 0033-5533.
^ Mozur, Paul (2019-04-14). “One Month, 500,000 Face Scans: How China Is Using A.I. to Profile a Minority”. The New York City Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the initial on 2019-06-08. Retrieved 2024-02-25.
^ Sahin, Kaan (December 18, 2020). “The West, China, and AI monitoring”. Atlantic Council. Archived from the initial on February 26, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
^ “Autocracy and AI Innovation”. Stanford University Center on China’s Economy and Institutions. Stanford University. July 1, 2022. Archived from the original on February 26, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
^ “China’s AI-Tocracy Quells Protests and Boosts AI Innovation”. IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on 2024-02-26. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.